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Edmund Ironside (30 November 1016; , , ; sometimes also known as Edmund II) was King of the English from 23 April to 30 November 1016. Edmund's reign was spent fighting with Norse invaders under Cnut.
Edmund was born sometime between 990 and 993 to King Æthelred the Unready. Little is known about Edmund's life before 1015; the first concrete evidence of his agency was from the late 1000s and he seems to have been close with his brother Æthelstan. Although Edmund possibly fought alongside his father in the campaigns of 1009 to 1011 and the campaign of 1013, when the royal family was forced to flee to Normandy due to Swein Forkbeard's invasion that year, Edmund stayed in England with Æthelstan. Æthelstan died in June 1014 and in his will Edmund was the main beneficiary, receiving the sword of Offa and estates in the Danelaw. Edmund inherited Æthelstan's connections in the Five Boroughs, and when his close allies Sigeferth and Morcar was executed with the permission of King Æthelred, he revolted, illegally marrying Sigeferth's widow and occupying the Five Boroughs, even issuing charters.
Edmund's revolt was suddenly ended by the invasion of Sweyn's son Cnut in the summer of 1015. To contest Cnut's occupation in Wessex, he attempted to raise armies alongside Eadric Streona and his father, but they all collapsed due to mistrust. A third force raised with Uhtred of Bamburgh fell apart as Uhtred submitted to Cnut when the latter threatened Bamburgh. Æthelred died on 23 April 1016 and Edmund soon claimed the throne. He fought in 4 battles with Cnut as Penselwood, Sherston, Brentford, and possibly Otford, and received military success. By the time he faced Cnut at the Battle of Assandun, he was backed by the "whole English nation" but Eadric Streona, the Ealdorman of Mercia fled, causing a decisive English defeat. After a possible sixth battle, Edmund was forced to partition the kingdom at Alney, with Cnut receiving everything except for Wessex, held by Edmund.
Edmund died soon after on 30 November under suspicious circumstances, and there is historical debate as to whether foul play was involved. Afterwards, Cnut receieved the whole of England and exiled or executed Edmund's family and supporters. The Danish line founded by Cnut would end in 1042 and the House of Wessex restored temporarily under Edmund's much younger half-brother, Edward the Confessor. Edgar the Ætheling, Edmund's grandson, was a claimant to the English throne for some time. Edmund's reputation was praised in medieval sources, and he is generally seen as a brave and capable king who fought Cnut to a standstill, forcing compromise.
The Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were poorly built to withstand Viking attack, but Alfred the Great reformed the West Saxon military system and declared himself King of the Anglo-Saxons, and his descendants would unite England. By Edward the Elder's death in 924, the remaining Danish polities south of the Humber were in English hands. His son Æthelstan was finally coronated as King of England in 927, and by the early 10th-century, the kings Edward the Elder, Æthelstan, and Edmund I of England were increasingly forcing out the last vestiges of independant Viking rule from England.; ; Famously, Æthelstan and his brother Edmund, who succeeded him as king, fought at the bloody Battle of Brunanburh, an English victory.; Edmund and his brother Eadred, who succeeded him as king because Edmund's own sons were too young, both lost and had to reconquer the north during their reigns.;
In 959, Edmund's second son Edgar, known as "the Peaceable," was crowned as King of England, after the largely unsuccessful reign of his elder brother Eadwig. Edgar was able to claim suzerainty over Scotland, and it was during his reign that Viking raids on England reduced significantly. Edgar would die in 975, which caused a succession dispute between the faction of his elder son, Edward, and his younger son, Æthelred, in which Edward was successful. Edward was murdered in March 978 and was succeeded by Æthelred. Towards the later Anglo-Saxon period, particularly the reign of Edmund's father, Æthelred, the Viking armies that invaded England expanded drastically in both professionalism and size. Further, despite the efforts of the West Saxon line, the Kings of all England could hardly rely on the support of their subjects within the former Danelaw. Æthelred's own character doesn't seem to have been capable of addressing the issue. He is frequently compared to Alfred the Great in their contrasting success in dealing with invasion, although Keynes attempted to contextualise their differences. Frank Stenton attributed "spasmodic violence," to Æthelred but this is also contested more recently.;
With the exception of the Knútsdrapa, Primary sources from the 11th century are not reserved in supporting Edmund Ironside and promoting his reputation.; In Howard's view, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, while largely factual, was politically crafted to promote the cause of Edmund.; The Encomium Emmae Reginae was written as a tool, sponsored by Emma of Normandy to retain her influence. The Encomiast manipulates political events and facts more than the chronicler, only even affording Edmund the title of king after Cnut recognized him in Wessex at Alney, but it still depicted him as brave and capable. As previously alluded, the Knútsdrapa is one of the most militantly pro-Cnut primary sources on the period. It omits the Battle of Sherston and falsely claims that Cnut was victorious at Brentford. The continental Thietmar of Merseburg's contemporary history was confused and spasmodic when speaking of England.
There is significant evidence that he was born in Wessex, possibly at Æthelingadene (modern-day Singleton), and raised by his grandmother, Ælfthryth. This gave him ties with the sons of Ordgar, who were powerful in the West Country. Ordwulf, Ordgar's son was called "first among the men of Devon." Given his later career, Edmund was probably taught in the use of arms, religion, and Virtue, possibly at Wherwell Abbey, and likely in his mother's company.
Edmund's birth was preceded by disorder in England, caused by a famine in 986, and escalating raids in the 980s that culminated in the decisive English defeat at the Battle of Maldon and tribute payment to Vikings. Beyond the tribute of 10,000 pounds, the battle also saw the death of Ealdorman Byrhtnoth of Essex.; The concept of tribute was not unique to Anglo-Saxon England, and had been practiced in 9th-century Francia as well. As a result, Æthelred's attitude changed significantly. In 993, at Pentecost, he summoned a council at Winchester admitting to wrongdoing and setting out to correct his supposed errors. Æthelred promoted the cult of Edward the Martyr, and reconciled with the reform movement in England.
From 997, there had been constant raids in England, with only a pause in 1000. In 1002, Æthelred ordered the St Brice's Day Massacre. The Danes were seen as a moral threat, and furthermore Æthelred may have doubted their loyalty, although they were unlikely to form a fifth column.; From 1005, Eadric Streona began to monopolise control at the king's court, forcing out many of Æthelred's former courtiers. In 1007, he even became the Ealdorman of Mercia. Scandinavian raids continued led by Swein Forkbeard of Denmark from 1003 to 1004, and again in 1006, forcing the English into another tribute payment in 1007.; A large coalition led by the powerful Thorkell the Tall ravaged Southern England from 1009 to 1011, and found Æthelred's military response largely ineffective. After his men sacked Canterbury and killed Archbishop Ælfheah, Thorkell defected to Æthelred as a mercenary. Though unrecorded, Edmund may have gained some early military experience fighting in the campaigns of 1009–1011, and later in 1013.
Sweyn launched an invasion of England in 1013 alongside his son Cnut (or Canute), possibly in response to Thorkell's sudden English alliance.; After landing at Sandwich in August, he routed some initial resistance before heading northwards, receiving the submission of the English north of Watling Street.; He then made his way south of Watling Street, at which point he allowed his men to begin looting the countryside, beginning a campaign of pillage. Sweyn first attacked London, but lacking success he secured the rest of Wessex, receiving Ealdorman Æthelmær's submission. Isolated, London surrendered, forcing Æthelred to flee for Normandy with his family, except for his two eldest living sons, Edmund and Æthelstan. It seems that those two had chosen to stay in England rather than fleeing with their father.
Sweyn died in February 1014, and the Five Boroughs accepted his son Cnut as king, despite the fact that he had not been crowned, and probably not accepted by the Witan. However, Æthelred returned to England and launched a surprise attack which defeated the Danes and forced Cnut to flee England. Æthelstan died in June 1014 and left Edmund a sword which had belonged to king Offa of Mercia. Edmund was the main beneficiary in his brother's will; he received two other swords, a silver trumpet, land in East Anglia and Derbyshire, and the responsibility of fulfilling a number of bequests.; ; Æthelstan's will also reflected the close relationship between the brothers and the nobility of the East Midlands.
Edmund reacted forcefully; he rescued Sigeferth's widow from Malmesbury and married her against the king's will. He may very well have simply demanded entry to the abbey; as an ætheling, the monks could little afford to offend him. Aside from the killing of his political allies, Edmund may have been provoked by the promotion of Emma of Normandy, her son Edward, and Eadric Streona at court.; There were many incidents at the time of noblewomen being taken and married, although some of these women probably colluded in their own abduction. According to William of Malmesbury, upon seeing her, he fell in love, but more practically, he could reinforce his prestige and consolidate his support in Mercia.
He probably used Malmesbury as a base to summon supporters before marching northwards along the Fosse Way–an old Roman road–to the Five Boroughs. He then received the submission of the people of the Five Boroughs, and laid claim to Sigeferth and Morcar's lands.; The events probably took place between August and September, based on the accounts of the chronicle and John of Worcester, which date them to between the Assumption and Nativity of Mary. Edmund began to issue charters at this point, and went so far as to call himself "King Edmund Ætheling," ; which may have exacerbated the situation, but changed to simply calling himself the son of the king. His grants of lands and diplomas were near-treasonous in nature.
Eadric then defected from the English camp with forty ships and submitted himself to Cnut. The king was now mortally ill, and with Edmund now having every reason to resent Eadric, the Mercian ealdorman had few prospects in a potential future government under the ætheling. Eadric was followed by the rest of the West Saxons in submitting.; Upon hearing of Cnut's actions in Wessex, Edmund began raising another army, largely composed of Mercia. but the troops refused to stay in the field without the presence of the king and a detachment from London.; This was not usually necessary to raise an army, and it seems that the Mercians felt they needed more men, and questioned the independant legitimacy of Edmund's authority.;
On the pleading of his son, Æthelred finally sent out musters and joined a fresh army in January, but again due to rumors of betrayal, the king returned to London.; ; The perpetrator is not known. Edmund headed north and allied with his brother-in-law Uhtred of Bamburgh, where they ravaged Eadric's lands, but Cnut counterattacked into the regions loyal to Edmund before heading to Northumbria along the Great North Road. Uhtred quickly rushed north and surrendered to Cnut upon hearing of this, but was executed.; Edmund then retreated to London. His decision to do so was likely driven by a wish to return south, where he could raise more troops, and also because of his father's advanced illness.
Æthelred died on 23 April 1016, and the citizens and councillors in London chose Edmund as king and probably crowned him.; The majority of the English magnates, in a Witenagemot meeting at Southampton, elected Cnut.; ; Neither was the unanimous choice of the English. In McDermott's view, factors working in Edmund's favor for the election included his presence at London, the destabilising affect of Streona's switching sides, and Cnut's campaign in the country. There was another claimant to the throne by Æthelred's death, Emma's son Edward, but his claim lacked support in England.
Edmund then fought Cnut's army, supposedly led by Thorkell the Tall, at the Battle of Sherston. It probably came in the last week of June. The battle lasting two days and was very costly for both sides, and Edmund is reputed to have fought bravely.; ; However, starting at the Battle of Sherston, the number of English nobles who sided with Cnut became apparent, many of whom were even related to Edmund. Eadric Streona was one English magnate on Cnut's side during the fighting. David McDermott has noted the division in Wessex over whether or not to support Edmund or Cnut, while Bartlett calls the Five Boroughs, rather than Wessex, Edmund's support base.; Edmund may have won a marginal victory at Sherston, and William of Malmesbury's account–which McDermott is inclined to accept in this instance–claims that Cnut's men retreated from the battlefield, leaving Edmund with the field. Sherston strengthened Edmund's position in Wessex. William of Malmesbury claimed that the remaining West Saxons submitted to Edmund, which is supported by repeated mentions of him raising troops from the region. It stabilised the state of affairs for Edmund and McDermott considers Sherston a watershed moment.;
Edmund returned to Wessex, where he raised reinforcements then moved to relieve the siege of London with an army described as "immense." Rather than attacking head on, he crossed the Thames and launched a surprise attack from the northward forest of Tottenham, forcing Cnut to flee for his ships.; Edmund rested for two days in London before renewing the pursuit, crossing the Thames around Brentford and attacking the Danes, who had used the time to establish themselves on the south bank.; Edmund met and defeated the Danes at the Battle of Brentford. While chasing the Danes, many of Edmund's men drowned in the River Thames, and he again went to Wessex to raise troops, and possibly to heal his own wounds.;
The majority of Edmund's troops now came from Wessex, probably as far as its most westerly shires. Cnut returned to besiege London, but was unable to breach its defences and soon retreated, pursued by Edmund. Now depleted, Cnut fled for his ships and engaged in a circular raiding campaign into Mercia, travelling by the River Orwell, before returning to Kent.; but was attacked by Edmund with a probable battle at Otford and forced to flee for the Isle of Sheppey.; At Aylesford, Eadric defected back to Edmund, who increasingly seemed to be winning.; For allowing this, Edmund is harshly criticized by the ASC, as well as the Encomiast, and later Anglo-Norman historians. Edmund's relationship with Eadric had historically been poor, but he likely desired Streona's potential forces from Mercia, where he was ealdorman.
Edmund strove to catch Cnut's forces in Essex before they could retreat to their boats, which gave Cnut much greater maneuverability. According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle he raised an army from "the whole English nation," but this likely just means he had support outside of Wessex, the ASC's focus. Cnut was forewarned of Edmund's attack, and prepared for battle. The Battle of Assandun is unusual in how precisely it can be dated, taking place on 18 October, lasting from just after noon to just before midnight, which itself is exceptional for its length. Although he had claimed the high ground, Edmund charged downhill onto Cnut's army, and the Danish line appeared to buckle. Either due to prior planning or fear in battle, Eadric fled from the battle, which opened the door to a decisive Danish victory.; Much of the English aristocracy fell.
Afterwards, Cnut and Edmund began negotiations at Deerhurst, and agreed to partition England at the Treaty of Alney. Cnut received Mercia and Northumbria, while Edmund received Wessex. Edmund died on 30 November 1016, possibly at London, Oxford, or an unknown royal estate. Contemporary accounts do not suggest that he was murdered, but soon after the Norman Conquest, Adam of Bremen wrote that he had been poisoned, and twelfth-century writers stated that he was stabbed or shot with an arrow while sitting on a toilet. The suspicious circumstances of Edmund's early death and terse reporting of the ASC on the matter have caused significant debate on the cause, particularly the potential of foul play.
According to the historian M.K. Lawson, these stories "doubtless owe more to folklore than history". Others are not so sure. Bartlett calls it "perhaps not entirely coincidental," that Edmund died when he did. Timothy Bolton says that it is equally possible he died due to campaign fatigue and injuries as to assassination. Don Hollway presents the 12th-century narratives and asserts that Edmund was murdered, specifically by Eadric Streona. Cnut had a proven record for assassinating his opponents, and McDermott attributes to Adam of Bremen's claim that Edmund was murdered some merit. He summarises some of the arguments either way, but concludes that Edmund more probably died from a mix of exhaustion, wounds, and illness.
Cnut would secure the whole of England soon after Edmund's death. He executed Eadric Streona in 1017, and implanted his own followers in Mercia. In dealing with Edmund's old supporters and family, he faced a potential usurpation attempt, and responded with expulsions and executions. He also shored up his political support by marrying Emma of Normandy, which had the benefit of continuity and ensuring that Normandy would not back any usurpation attempts from the remaining æthelings. Cnut's dynasty lasted until 1042 with the death of his son Harthacnut and restoration of Wessex in Edward the Confessor, the last uncontested Anglo-Saxon king of England. He would be succeeded by William the Conqueror in the wake of the Norman Conquest.
There is a positive historical consensus on the quality of Edmund's leadership. In Lawson's view, he was "probably a highly determined, skilled and indeed inspiring leader of men." Frank Stenton, although he believed that England's fate had already been decided in 1009–1012, remarked that Edmund "had a reputation of the kind which made a king formidable in disaster." Levi Roach, at the end of his biography of Æthelred the Unready, called Edmund a "worthy successor." Historian Richard Bolton characterises him in contrast to Cnut as the straight-forward warrior facing off against a more cunning and underhanded rival. He does not conclude that the conflict was a one-sided affair, rather one that rested on the shifting resolve of the English aristocracy. Where Lawson felt that Edmund's successes, contrasted with his father's misfortunes, showed proof that the late Anglo-Saxon state was still effective under good leadership, Simon Keynes has argued many of Æthelred's failures were due to factors beyond his reach. That said, Edmund's short reign led to academic neglect.
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